Odisha: problems in Historical Premises

Intro: Methodological Difficulties
  When we think of Odisha, we need to consider the cultural diversity and plurality of the land, the socio-political dimensions those brought the present form of the state, socio-political and socio-cultural significance of the stretch in the Eastern Indian region along with the role of hegemonic power structure in constructing its history (rather histories).The historical identit(y/ies) and changing geograph(y/ies) of Kalinga frequently strikes me. Many stanzas from Mahabharata, Puranas, Sanskrit and Pali/Prakrit literature do not sufficiently provide support to the popular concept of Kalinga. The histro-literary concept of Ganga to Godav(b)ari some time contracts to the ethno-historical concept of Kansabasa to Banshadhara. Oral histories of migration toward Bindya too have significant to the histories of Kalinga.The Bindhyanchala, the Mahanadi valley, the Chhot-nagpur plateau, the Subarnarekha valley - all major geographical tract, though, culturally interrelated with each other; politically they probably have separate histories of identities and the historiographies of Odisha need to be examined on the basis. Furthermore, we need to ask whether Kalinga, Utkal, Toshala/i, Kangoda, Koshala all the known names shared the common geographical and political borders in different historical periods or not. Whether the earlier Southern Kos(h)al(a) and latter Chhattisgarh too constituted with the western part of present day Odisha as its 18 garhs or not? What is the effect of migration and colonization in the formulation of royal historical accounts?


  Till far we have not revisited the colonial construction of history (in this case no plural form is applicable). Our nationalistic historiography is heavily informed by the colonial accounts. Available historical writings on Odisha also have another limitation since those are based on partial account. Even on the history of 18th and 19th century, our historian rarely go for the materials available at the archives of Madras (Chennai), Hyderabad and Raipur which are more important in constructing the identity of Odisha. Ethno-historical field work on our history yet has not conducted. We have not yet looked for the people’s history of the land, but just believe in the greatness of the land and her history.


  Very often I feel discomfort with the popular perception on Odisha and this is growing ever. What bothers me is the attachment of heavy romanticism with our historical and cultural view. Especially history is concerned to our discussion, because it has its continuity that largely can help in finding solution of many contemporary problems we are facing. History counts for the present and can explain our present situations; but romanticized accounts of history lead us to false steps, we do but fall for nothing, we do but worship the false god. Nothing about history and culture is sacred. There is good history and too there is bad history, we have to face both, courageously.


Geographical Teritory: The Ancient Phase
Our historical conception is largely attached to costal belt of present day Odisha and many a time synonimized with ancient Kalinga and Utkala, which is believed to be stretched from Ganga to Godavari. Alas, no historical evidence supports it. Ashokan edicts just help us in finding the territory from eastern sea shore to Rushikulya. Beyond Jaugada, there were non-Kalingan people, termed as ‘atavi’ (forest dweller) and ‘amta abhijita’ (unconquered boarders). Kharavel, no doubt, had conquered a vast area in eastern region, but we have no evidence whether any of the conquered territory was annexed to Kalinga. Besides, he clearly indicated that the western forest region was not the part of his territory. Epigraphic sources inform that during Samudra Gupta there were little small chiefdoms in eastern coastal belts and south to them were the political territory of Amaravati and Krishna. There is no indication of Kalinga. Allahabad inscription indicates that along with the eastern chiefdoms, Samudra Gupta annexed the vast Dravidian kingdoms in to his empire. Kalidas depict the boared of Kalinga in between southern sea shore and Mahendragiri. According to his literary description, Utkal was another territory, situated to the north of Kalinga. All were conquered by the mythical Raghu and lost their independence. Most probably, in 5th century A.D., the geographical location of Kalinga sifted to the South, ruled over by the Telugus and Srikalukulam became its political centre. Hsiuen-tsang listed Wu-t’u (Udra/Utkala near eastern sea), Kung-yu-t’o (Kangoda around Chilika), Ka-leng-ka (Kalinga - south Ganjam) as some of the small provinces in the eastern part of present day Odisha. For the first time, epigraphic records of Chodagangadeva of early twelfth century; we find the extension of his empire from Ganga to Godavari, but the empire was rarely depicted as Kalinga. Furthermore, the Gangas were of Dravida origin, ruling over southern Kalinga in different phases roughly from 5th century A.D.


Kalinga in Ancient Literature: Derogation and Dignity
Account on Kalinga rarely appears in the earliest Brahmanical literature. Boudhayana Dharmasutra perhaps the first text, where we find the name of Kalinga, but in a derogative sense, i.e., the land of mlechchha (impure people). In this text the Brahmanas and Aryas are advised not to visit the land. The particular term mlechchha or its synonym brata (degenerated people) was in use in the ancient Brahmanical standard for the (land and) people who were not coming under the norm of Brahmanical morality and legal prescription such as varnashrama dharma or, do not had any respect for the Brahmanical moral codes. The great epic Mahabharata vividly describe the regiments of mighty elephant warriors of Kalinga and praise their way of battle, nevertheless, use the term mlechchha and they are always associated with other so-called barbarian communities. During a pilgrimage when Arjuna visits to the Pracya (eastern to the Aryabrata), the Brahmans escort him up to the Borders of Kalinga, hesitate to enter the land while they permit Arjuna to wonder freely. Contradictory enough, in another pilgrimage of the Pandavas, risi Lomasa brings Yudhisthira to the northern bank of river Baitarani in Kalinga and narrates it as one of the most sacred place, the place that is beloved by the risis and constantly inhabited by the dvijas. There is nothing to take in surprise since the expansion of Aryas (people of Aryabrata), the economic and military development of Prachyas (including Kalinga) and the phase wise composition of Mahabharata all have inter-relations. (Continuining……)

Human Bondage: Micro-Macrocosmic Relationship in Bhima Bhoi’s Philosophy

Boundless is the anguish and misery of the living.

Who can see it and tolerate?

Let my life be condemned to hell,

but let the universe be redeemed.

- Bhima Bhoi (Stutichintamani, 01/27)

I

Bhima Bhoi (1845-95) is one of the most interesting literary and religious figures of Orissa. Though he was the last saint poet in the nirguna tradition of Oriya Literature, he is regarded as the greatest one in the tradition as well among his contemporary, including the modern trio. Further more, though he was born in a poor adivasi family in a remote village of Orissa, his literary works are considered as the precious possessions of Oriya Literature. All his poems are embodied with highly philosophical though and vision along with love towards the human beings. Apart from being a poet, he was a great social reformer too. He was the disciple of Mahima Gosain, the legendary founder of the Mahima Dharma movement. During the 19th Century, this religious reform movement negated almost everything that, in general characterizes Hinduism. That is, the reference to the Veda as a sacred scripture, idol worship, temple cult, pilgrimage and Brahman priesthood. Although Mahima Gaosain was the founder of Mahima Dharma, it was really the work of Bhima Bhoi that brought home to the all people the essence and excellence of the new doctrine.

Bhima Bhoi’s social philosophy of universal brotherhood and equality, rejection of any type of discrimination and opposition to feudal exploitation etc along with his believe in Sunya-vada (Void-ism) and Nirguna Upasana (workship of God transcending all qualities, both positive and negative) can be easily traced from his work. Despite of all these, it is to some extend, difficult to discover something like the core of his spiritual philosophy, that is also the core of his own sadhana. This is due to the very complex images, deep mysticism and also the embodiment of personal emotion and poetic imagination with the core spirituality in his work. It is because of the fact that Bhima Bhoi was an in born poet first, then a preacher of a particular religious cult. In spite of many studies and researches on Bhima Bhoi, therefore, the difficulty remains to obtain a comprehensive interpretation and find out the spiritual base of his philosophy and also that of Mahima Dharma. Not only in the works of Bhima Bhoi, such type of difficulties also found in the work of other saint poets of Orissa. If the elements of creativity and spirituality will be distinguished, and co-relation between them will be traced, then the philosophical base of any mystic saint poet can be easily discovered.

Bhima Bhoi’s works can be divided into two broad categories, viz, texts of having more creative value and that of more philosophical orientation. For convenience, let us keep the texts of first category aside. Those are Stutichintamani, Mahima Vinod (unpublished), Astaka Bihar Gita, Chautisha Madhuchakra and Bhajanamala. Then let us consider the tents of second categories viz. Adianta Gita, Shrutinishedha Gita, Nirveda Sadhana and Bramhanirupana Gita. The themes of these texts can be classified and a particulars center of the themes can be discovered. It is the pinda bramhanda tatva that is the theory of the connection and correspondence between the human body and the universe, or micro and macro-cosmic relationship. The other philosophy contributing to this theory or philosophy revolving around this theory can also be understood by the own strength of this theory. This theory is not new in the Indian tradition of religious philosophy, it has a long and well established tradition. In Bhima Bhoi’s works, however, it has got a new dimension.

II

Bhima Bhoi’s Philosophy of Pinda-bramhananda, Sunya Sadhana, nirguna upasana etc. can be traced less or more in the Upanishadas, Mahayani Buddhist doctrines, Buddhist Sahajayana and Tantrayana, among the North Indian Nirgun saints and Orissan Gyana-margi Panchasakhas etc. Theirs attributes in Mahayana and its branch Tantrayana, however, far different from that in Mahima Dharma; rather, those philosophy of Bhima Bhoi has some similarities with the philosophy of Nathas and nirgun saint like Kabir etc. It is said that when Sahajayana, the branch of Buddhist Mahayana, became more complex and esoteric due to the incorporation of Vamachari Tantra, people could not easily accept it. Gorekhnath, who was a Sahajayani in his earlier phase, refined and redefined this cult and established a new sect, which in latter period came to be known as Natha Pantha. The spiritual essence of Pinda bramhanda philosophy is attributed to him. Since Natha Pantha originated from Buddhist Sahajayana, its philosophy and practices have some resemblance with those of different Buddhist sects; but it has nothing to do with the tantric (esoteric sexual) practices.

In Natha cult, the Bramha or Supreme power is imagined as Sunya, i.e. the void. This Sunya is otherwise known as Nirguna, Nirakara, Alekha or Shiva. It is basically a Yoga-centric cult. The Natha believe that the Bramha can be experienced in human body through controlling the breath. They have visualized different layers in human body known as Chakras and Padmas, and those are believed to be different stages of spiritual sadhana. It is believed that when the sadhaka or spiritual practicenor can raise his breath up to the last padma i.e. the hridaya padma, he/she can get the Shiva or Sunya and can gain emancipation. This practice is also found in Patanjali’s Yoga. Whatever may be the believe, Yoga is a scientific method for healthy life. Since the Nathas believe that the human body is the universe and all siddhis (success) can be gained through the body, they have given more importance to shaving that body.

The next phase of development of Natha cult can be found in the nirgun saint tradition of North India (15th to 18th Century). Though the nirgum saints has given less importance to Yoga and more importance to bhakti, accepted all other character it’s of Natha cult. The basic similarities among the followers of these two cults, that both have imagined God as the Nirguna (having no quality), Nirakara (having no from) and Adveita (non-dual) essence. Both have confidence on the pinda bramhanda philosophy. Both have visualized different charkas and padmas in human body. For both yoga (Spiritual practice) and bhoga (material enjoyment) have equal value. Both have given importance to the balance among the two. Shiva, the supreme power in Natha cult is formless and completely void, he is not the saguna Shiva as it in the Hindu mythology. Like this, Rama in the nirgun saint tradition has neither the son of Dasaratha nor the King of Ayodhya.

All most all Natha gurus and nirgun saints had come from the lower strata of the then society. They all had less or more experienced the discrimination and injustice in the name of class, caste, religion and gender. The pinda-bramhanda theory was weapon in their hand to fight against such discrimination. Since the human body is universe, and the Bramha, the Supreme resides in that universe, each and every human being is equal. No discrimination, in any form, among them can be supported.

III

Bhima Bhoi’s Adianta Gita (The Dialogue on Beginning and End) is the most important text to give a clear idea about the pinda bramhanda philosophy. This text consists in a dialogue between jiva and parama, the human being and the supreme. At the end of every chapter it is repeated ‘E pinda bramhanda sakhi go ekamata’ (Darling, this body and the universe is one). The context of Adianta Gita can be summerised as sarirabheda that is the body as the instrument of sadhana, the body as the locus where every thing is to be found and integrated. This can be related to the kayasdhana of the Natha Yogis. In both it is a question of making the body immortal.

Durlabha janama pinda go ksaya nahin, aksaya amar nama go achhi bahi.

(Adianta, 17/02)

 This birth is difficult to attain. The body will not be destroyed; it is called indestructible and immortal.

 In the last chapter the poet has described how the Bramha is void and formless and how he resides in the body of each and every human being.

In Bramhanirupana Gita and Shrutinishedha Gita, Bhima Bhoi gives some clear definition of the Bramha, e.g.

Jesaneka Paida bhitare thai ambu, sehi rupe bramha jyana ghate achhi babu.

(Bramhanirupana, 78/01)

The knowledge of Bramha is in the body, like the water exists inside the green coconut.

And,

Ghatare bramhaku n chinhi,

Bahyare bhramuthanti prani

E ghate Jagannatha achhi,

Pratima Michhare Pujuchhi.

Murti Pratima Suska Katha,

Se puni nebeki baikuntha.

Mithyare bhrami mare prani,

Ghata pratimaku na chinhi.

(Shrutinishedha, 18, 20, 21, 22/02)

Not recognizing the Bramha in the body, people wonder outside. Jagannatha resides in this body. It is worthless to worship the idols, they are dry wood, and they can not take you to heaven. Not knowing Ghatabramha, i.e. Bramha in the human body, worshiping the idol is only the false believe.

All philosophical thoughts of Bhima Bhoi centered on the Pinda Bramhanda doctrine, that the Bramha that exists in the molecules and atoms of the human body does not need any type of meditation, rites and rituals. The body is the real universe - this doctrine leads to the broader concept of equality. Therefore, in Bhima Bhoi’s philosophy and preaching, there is no discrimination of caste, class, religion and gender. Plenty of examples of this concept can be found in Bhima Bhoi’s works. A few among them are:

a.  

Jesanaka jala pabanara bheda nahi,

Purusu jetiki jiba stiri jiba tahin.

Bramha bhakatire au barna bheda hani,

Je bheda karai kumbhi narkare padai.

Guru duaraku surbe atanti samana

Stiri ba purusha tahin nahi bada sana.

(Stuti, 13, 14, 15/08)

Both male and female have equal share,
as there is between water and air.
Barna division is no more exist in Bramha bhakti,
Any one, who discriminates among human will go to the worst hell.
All are equal at the gate of guru,
There exists no hierarchy between female and male

b.

Nicha Uccha nahi tahin bacchanda bikar

Sarba Karma Samachara ate abikara

(Bramhanirupana, 54/1)

(The supreme) do not support the hierarchy of low and high,
all occupation is equal in front of him.
 c.

Stiri purusha duhinku gadhiachhi

jodie swarupa dekha

Dvitiya jatiru tini jati nahin

Sujane kara bibeka

(Stuti, 13/14)

Oh you good people, see,
(he) has created only two forms – male and female,
Except it there exists no third caste.


d.

Jati-ajati n bachhibu

Sakala gruhare bhunjibu.

(Sruti,02/07)

You have to take food from all households without any discrimination of caste.

The Brahma that exists in the body of each human being is not different from the human being itself. In other words, the atma and (the human soul) and paramatma (the supreme soul) both are indifferent.

All creative and emotional works of Bhima Bhoi, including his master piece Stuti Chintamani are highly influenced by this concept of equality or the theory of Pinda-brahmanda. His well known verse, where he wishes to go to the hell in exchange of the redeemation of the world and ending of anguish and misery of the people, is also a result of the Pinda-brahmanda theory and concept of equality therefore. In the same boli (i.e.,27th boli) of Stuti Chintamani he again says:

Kathara bhitare sudhala dhature jala purithai jete
Praninka angare jiba parmarupa phuti dishuthai sete.

… ….. …….

Eka khanda hada bundae rudhira phute maunsha janai

Tenukari sina praninka bikala sahi na parai muhin.

Eka khadagare dashapancha munda chhidai bharata juddhe
Areka angaku pade praharile e angaku mora badhe.

The soul in human body looks like, as if there exists crystal clear water in a container of fine wood or metal. ...... I know this body is made up of few pieces of bones, few drops of blood and little quantity of meat. The same ingredients indifferently exist in each body. I can not, therefore, tolerate the suffering of the people. When I hear the stories from the Mahabharata, where a single sword kills five or ten people at once, I feel pain. When you beat or hurt the other, I feel the same pain in my own body.

IV

 I do not need to repeat, that Bhima Bhoi’s works at each step are controlled and influenced by the Pinda-brahmanda theory. Neither in the main stream nor in the subaltern stream of Indian religion, was this theory not unknown. In Bhima Bhoi’s writings, however, it has got a very new and unique form. It has reached to the Mahima Dharma through the Natha cult and nirguna cults, which were developed as parallel movements to Vedic religion. In the 10th Skandha of Srimad Bhagavat Mahapuranam, mother Yoshoda could see the whole universe in the mouth of child Sri Krishna. Like this, in Bhagavat Geeta, Sri Krishna shows his visva-rupa, the whole universe in his body, to his sakha Arjuna. In both the cases, however, Sri Krishna is imagined as the supreme power, the God himself. The human being is very tiny like the grasses, in front of him. The Nathas, the nirguna saints and at last Guru Mahima Gosain and his disciple Bhima Bhoi, but, have the spiritual courage to see the whole universe in the body of that tiny human being.

It may be noted that in the writings of Gnyanamargi Panchasakhas and other Orissan saints, the philosophy of Pinda-brahmanda is not absent. It is, however, a single part of their spiritual thought, not the centre. In the thought of Mahima Gosain and Bhima Bhoi, it became the centre, which could make Mahima Dharma, a completely human centric and highly social oriented cult.